How is Seeing Enders Game a Political Action Essay

How is Seeing Enders Game a Political Action - Essay Example From a consumer perspective, the selection of a company preference is also influenced by the ideologies supported by the company. From a political perspective, if a CEO of a company cites his support for a political party, they risk being ignored by consumers with alternative opinions. For this reason, it is an accurate assumption that the ideologies of a person associated with a project will directly affect the market perception of the entire company. The same situation is experienced on the perception of Ender’s game. Â  Orson Scott Card has poor political ideologies. He is described as racist, homophobic and careless in making politically related comments. On more than one occasion, Orson has said extreme homophobic comments. At one instance, he said that gay people are a result of the genetic problem (Rugnetta, How is Seeing Enders Game a Political Action?). In addition, he said that gay people should be prosecuted for their actions. Most recently, he pointed out that Obama regime is similar to that of a dictator, and the government has put in place measure to destroy evidence that depicts the existence of global warming ((Rugnetta, How is Seeing Enders Game a Political Action?). These comments are viewed as political and social inappropriate in a social democracy and human rights are important factors. Indirectly, a person with a preference to watch the movie may be in support of the ideologies of its creator. In an argument by Rugnetta buying a movie ticket to the film indirectly depicts that a person supports the ideologies of Orson. The film further develops the assertion that the support of the film is associated with the support of the personal opinion by Orson (Rugnetta, How is Seeing Enders Game a Political Action?). From the developed argument, it is an obvious assertion that the personal ideas of Orson do not support human rights and democracy. Â  

The efforts required in an intercultural marriage Essay Example for Free

The efforts required in an intercultural marriage Essay In an intercultural relationship there are more efforts and dedication that are required from the two individuals. This is due to the fact that miscommunication is a common scenario. Even the simplest factors can be the cause of misunderstandings. What is the norm of a person can be unacceptable to the other. These aspects are not limited to significant issues such as religion, norms, values, financial issues, social status, and the outlook in like specially those dealing with the nurturing and developing of the children. Issues also revolve around simple subjects and points of discussion such as the food, the duties of the couple, the clothes, the priorities, and even the friends and the social activities (Romano, 1997). These factors describe every aspect of the life that is being shared by the couple. In this view that defines a variety of facet that has a high percentage of divergence, it can be viewed that misinterpretation is inevitable. Thus, the couple exerts an extra amount of work to be able to completely understand each other and attain a successful marriage. Success in terms of marriage can be equated to the contentment and fulfillment that an individual can achieve from a relationship. Intercultural relationship is a complex process due to the fact that the success of the relationship is a product of the interplay of the complex factors associated with the dissimilar origin. This can be supported by the study conducted on the achievement of intercultural marriages taken the effect of religion. Results generated showed that even in cases wherein the couples are of the same religion, which lessens the incurred differences, the coupes that are belonging to the same race and culture are comparatively more successful. Thus, in terms of the observable parameter used, these couples have less arguments and misunderstandings (Fu, Kendall, and Tora, 2001). Another significant consideration is the pressure that can be generated by the relationship to the women. This is in relation to the roles that they have to carry out in an intercultural marriage (Fu, Kendall, and Tora, 2001). Women are commonly the one to conform in the culture and tradition of the men. The society is composed of an intricate web of interpersonal relationship. In cases such as this, the norms and traditions even in an advanced era oftentimes dictate that the women are the one to adjust to the tradition of the society from which the men belong. Women appease to this set-up due to the strong sense of duty that is given to the norms of the family (Romano, 1997). Although as the results of the study have shown that women usually take a bigger role and experience a higher degree of change in their personal life, both parties have to sacrifice a part of their well being to be able to attain a compromise and achieve a successful life together. Norms and traditions are essential part of every person’s well being and compromising in an intercultural relationship may also mean losing a part of one’s way of life. Thus, it is a struggle to maintain this type interpersonal relationship. One of the struggles that can be encountered is unconventional traditions than can be unacceptable and detestable to the partner. In cases such as this additional communication and ultimately understanding is required. Communication is necessary due to the fact performing such activities and practices are common to the partner and cannot be viewed negatively, thus, any harm done to the other person was not consciously performed. Intercultural communication is an essential and vital element in the relationship of individuals in the society and the world. It applies to every conversation, every transactions and every variation in character and culture, thus, it is worth a try to be able to attain the wanted intercultural marriage success and contentment (Casmir, 1997). Conclusion Based on the result of the research conducted, there is an increase in the efforts that is required from couples of different norms and traditions to be able to attain success in an intercultural marriage. This means a comparatively more trials and obstacles to overcome on every aspect of the relationship and each individual’s personal being. This can be trying and tedious endeavor but success is not impossible and achieving a lasting and worthwhile relationship is worth all the risk. References Bacas, J. L. (2003). Cross-border marriages and the formation of Transnational Families: A case study of Greek-German couples in Athens WPTC-02-10. Transnational Communities Programme. Retrieved July 3, 2006 from http://www. transcomm. ox. ac. uk/working%20papers/WPTC-02-10%20Bacas. pdf Casmir, F. L. (1997). Ethics in Intercultural and International Communication. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Constable, N. (2003). Romance on a Global Stage: Pen Pals, Virtual Ethnography, and Mail-Order Marriages. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Fu, X. , Kendall, H. , and Tora, J. (2001) Marital Happiness and Inter-Racial Marriage: A Study in a Multi-Ethnic Community in Hawaii. University of Calgary. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 32 (1), 47. Romano, D. (1997). Intercultural Marriage: Promises Pitfalls. Washington, DC: Intercultural Press.

A Report on the Strategic Culture and Marketing Strategy of Canon

A Report on the Strategic Culture and Marketing Strategy of Canon This is a report and detail analysis of internal structure and culture of Canon. Canon is an established international firm in the photocopy and imaging industry. It operates in diverse range of markets which includes business solution, computer imaging, broadcast and communication, medical system and industrial product. This report further evaluates the overseas opportunities of Canon using PESTEL framework. PESTEL is used to analyse the macro environment and to indentify the key drivers of change affecting the company. The analysis of the internal structures and culture of Canon was carried out by using the McKinseys 7S model and SWOT framework to analyze the company internal capabilities. This report is divided into three parts. The first part focuses on the analysis of internal structures and culture of Canon. The McKinseys 7S model and SWOT framework are used in this section for the analysis. The second part relies on Ansoff matrix to assess the overseas growth options available to Canon. The last segment is an analysis of the overseas opportunities for Canon and recommend a suitable overseas market for the company to entry. 2.0 An assessment of Canon internal structures and culture The structure in organization arises as a result of the necessity of the people in organization to know who is in charge, what their role is and who to turn to if there is any concern. Therefore, whether small or large, local, national or multinational, an organization has to have a structure. Henry Mintzberg (1983, p.2) submits that the structure of an organization is the sum total of the ways in which its labour is divided into distinct tasks and then its coordination is achieved among these tasks. Canon as a horizontal organisation includes worldwide Group companies and management committees which are established to address important management issues, and serve a mutual-check function complementing its system of products and operations  [1]  . In this regard, the structure of Canon significantly affects how the company pursue and realized its strategic objectives. It allows or constraints workers (as the case may be) to actually makes changes and get culturally align with the company strategy. All of the company strategic initiatives rely on the ability of the worker to manipulate the culture of the company that guide employee behaviour in the organization. Cooperate culture is the sum of the sociological markers and behaviours of those within an organisation. The degree to which this aligns with the organisation core values is a powerful driver for success. In using the McKinseys 7S model and SWOT framework, the analysis of Canon internal structures and culture are further expatiated. 2.1 Canon Global: McKinseys 7-S and Swot analysis Introduced by McKinsey and Company in the 1970s, the 7-S model has revolutionalised the way management thinks about organisation effectiveness. It is essentially a framework developed to address the critical role of coordination, rather than structure in an organisation. The 7-S that is strategy, structure, staffing, style, skills, system and shared value are used to analysed Canon simultaneously below. 2.1.1 Analysing Canon: The Mckinseys 7S model In terms of strategy, Canon aims to achieve and sustain its goal of becoming a truly excellent global photocopy and imaging company through its five key strategies for growth. Particularly, its strategy follows from the company adoption of the kyosei philosophy in a global corporation plan. Canon operates a flat structure. It is a horizontal organisation which includes worldwide Group companies and management committees (Refer to Appendix 1). It is important to note that different firms are structured in different ways depending on their size, their culture, their activities and their history. Canon represents what Boje and Dennehy submits as a post modern organisation (2000) and therefore able to strategically respond to the contemporary business environment. A post modern organisation comprises a networked set of diverse, self-managed, self-controlled teams with poly-centres that is many centres of coordination that fold and unfold according to the requirements of the tasks. Being a post modern organisation not only explains the systemic nature of Canon, the ability of the company to implement the kyosei philosophy in every segment of the company is also a clear example. Likewise, teams are organized in flat design, employees are highly empowered and involved in the job, information is fluid and continuous improvement is emphasized throughout. Canon is a flat organization that values and entrust the experience of its staffs to do what is right in the organization. As of December 31, 2009 Canon staff strengths stood at 25,683 globally. It is has highly technical and talented staffs. Canon recognises that learning and development is an important aspect of an organisation growth and development (Sadler-Smith, E 2006, p.2), it has invested on training its staffs and this has leads to an improved skills and knowledge by its staff and in particular area of staff expertise. Canon approach to the articulation of its value is based on aligning individual and organisational goals. Therefore with well trained staff, Canon has developed the ability overtime to compete favourably in the industry. Canon has sustains a vitalised culture among its employee for a long period of time (Kono and Clegg 1998, p. 176). The company ability to ensure that its shared value are integrated into the company as a whole and that they are limited to the management levels explains its style and shared value. Furthermore, the style at which an organisation chooses to pursue its objectives is crucial to the successful realization of those objectives. The core values are foundational to everything that the company does, and organisational style of doing things is part of the core values. It helps defines how the employee, dealers and suppliers are going to help the company contribute to achieving the organisation vision. Canon is an organisation that prides on excellence and technology. Canon of invention is an invincible powerful force that gently nudges the workers into compliance with being continuously innovative. Canon marketing campaign often takes account the local consideration and languages. The kyosei corporate philosophy symbolizes the corporate value which is the shared value of the company. Kyosei means living and working together for the common good which embody the broader share value of the organisation All people regardless of race religion or culture, harmonising living an d working together into the future. 2.1.2 The Swot analysis of Canon This section involves the identification of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats as regards to Canon. The SWOT analysis is a management instrument for developing structured response options to deal with external threats and exploit opportunities. 2.1.2.1 Strengths The unique concept and quality of the services offered by Canon is its one major competitive strength. It has been able to sustain this through its focus on inventions and also continuous management innovative reforms. Improved management quality refers to the achievement of real-time management that immediately puts into practise strategies based on well-horned decision-making process (The Canon Story, 2009/2010). The strength of the company to maintain its competitiveness also emanates from good customer relationship it has established with its customers overtime. It has succeeded in transforming the mindset of its employee to be focus on total optimization and profit and has thus enable the employees to relate to customers in an effective and efficient ways. In addition, it has multi skilled labour that cut across all segment of the organisation expertise and they are very effective in matching both the tangible and intangible company resources to its strategies. 2.1.2.2 Weakness Despite the fact that Canon is a global name, it has not extensively exploits other business areas and domains outside its traditional markets of Europe, United States, China and Japan. It should not only restrict its participation to exhibitions in markets outside its traditional zones, it has to be seen to establish production lines in such emerging economies like Brazil and South Africa. This has the potential of sustain its global competitiveness and these markets are rapidly growing with major global impacts. It will also bolster the company diversification process. 2.1.2.3 Opportunities Although, the company expansion into China is also applicable to all major brands in the imaging industry, Canon major opportunity for competitiveness stems from this expansion into Asian countries. In this light, it will be able to benefits from the rise in the demand for digital product in these countries. It bolsters its capability to capture growing demand worldwide for digital products. By focusing on China and other Asian markets, Canon can benefits from the growth potential of these rapidly emerging markets. 2.1.2.4 Threats The major threats to Canon in the industry are from its competitors products. There are intensive competitions among the major players such as Sharp, Toshiba, Sony, Samsung and others each striving for excellence. This creates intensive competition for substitutes products that Canon has to deal with. However, it should be noted that Canon is responding adequately by establishing fully automated production lines built around automated machinery and robot to sustain international competitiveness. 3.0 An examination of Canons strategic business growth In this section, the Ansoff Matrix is used to analyse the process of Canon strategic business growth. The Ansoff growth matrix is a tool for strategic business planning. Although, it must be used along with other decision making tools, the Ansoff Matrix is a tool that can be used to formulate growth strategy for business and market. Table 1 shows the matrix as developed by Igor Ansoff below: As shown in the above diagram, the matrix formulation considers two growth areas which could be the launch of a new or existing product in the markets and growth of a new or expansion of the existing markets. Therefore the growth strategies are developed based on the formulation of growth strategy for the business concerning the products and markets. These are: One, existing product in an existing market, which is indicated as market penetration. Two, new products in an existing market, this is indicated as product development. Three, existing product in new markets, this is market development, and four, new product launch in new markets which is the diversification strategy. Canons Ansoff Matrix 3.1.1 Market Penetration The market penetration strategy of Canon is focus on selling the existing product in existing markets. The company in selling its existing products in the markets can embark of product price cuts in other to increase the sales in existing products. The primary objective is to continue to achieve higher market share in existing markets which of course involve improving the elements of the marketing mix. 3.1.2 Market Development This will involves launching the existing products into a new market overseas or targeting new segments in the home market. For example, Canon launch its products in various countries with different purchasing powers therefore the company will have to match the cost of production of their product in competition with others existing business in the same county. 3.1.3 Products development This simply involves the development of a new product for their loyal customers in the existing markets. This mainly is been carried out by creating new products with modified feature to attract customers. Canon uses this as strategy of continuously developing and upgrading its products while at the same time aiming to ensure the loyalty of its customers. 3.1.4 Diversification Diversification involves that Canon enter a new market with completely new products. This strategy may be suitable for Canon as it has gained a market share in established markets and are seeking new growth opportunity of business which has reach saturation in their markets. Therefore, it can invest completely in new areas as it is doing now medical imaging and other advanced technologies. 4.0 An evaluation of overseas opportunities for Canon The PESTEL framework is used here to analyse Canons overseas opportunities and its suitability for overseas market entry. The market environment where an organisation stands contains both the micro and macro aspects of the environment. PESTEL is used to analyse the macro environment and to indentify the key drivers of change affecting customer buying behaviour in the photography and imaging industry. The PESTEL framework for Canon in three countries is first tabulated below before the short analysis is done. Factors (PESTEL) China USA Brazil Political Attract Investment Investment friendly Attract investment Economic High consumer demands High consumer demand High consumer demand Social Rapidly expanding middle class Large middle and buoyant middle class Growing middle class Technological Growing rapidly Established Growing Environmental Conducive Conducive Conducive Legal Unstable Stable Stable Table 2: PESTEL Analysis The above table shows a simple evaluation of how the political, economic, social, technological, environmental and legal factors affect Canon business expansion in three countries. In terms of the political factor, China, USA and Brazil political environment are conducive for investment. They are attractive for investment and as such there is opportunity for expansion by Canon. In China, the economy has been growing between 9%-11% every year since the 1980s. Chinas rapid economic growth is reflected in a high concentration of Ultra-High Net Worth Individual (Ultra-HNWIs); it raises the peoples standard of living. This is also similar to Brazil where consumers purchasing power is on the increase. Therefore the Chinese economic development over the past three decades, Brazil growing consumer consumption and United States large middle class are indications of market opportunities for Canon. The rapidly and upper class in China seeks to enhance its identity and quality of life with luxury goods which is a good opportunity for Canon as its concentrates into high-tech products. China is not only an attractive market because of its large population, Chinese consumer markets is increasingly tending towards high-tech products. The growing demand for medical imaging products in China is an opportunity that Canon has to tap into. In regards to the environmental factors, a keenly awareness of the industry, market, trends, demographics and burgeoning technologies is important for Canon strategic business development. For instance, there is growing global need for technology that protects the environment and as such Canon can seek to expand its capacity in this area. The tremendous opportunities that springs from globalization should be balanced by the need to remain vigilant of changes in the societal, political and business climate of the world at large. While the existing laws in China which is in various jurisdictions governing issues such as taxes, personal privacy of China is uncertain and unstable, the legal factors in USA and Brazil are very conducive for Canon rapid business growth and expansion programmes. 4.1 Canon market entry strategy The market entry strategy pursue by a company depends on its vision, the company attitudes towards risks and importantly the available investment capital. The level of risks and financial rewards increases as a company moves from market entry strategy such as exporting to joint venture to licensing and ultimately to direct investment. Canon evaluates the revenue channels such as licensing, investment and strategic alliances/partnership and uses that as a market entry strategy with minimal risks. A firm choice of mode of entry to a market is central to the implementation of its international strategy (Pehrsson, 2008). Canon has often taken a broad approach to international market entry. This is because most of its products are often available through distributors in many major capitals. It makes the company an already existing entity even before any major entry into such markets. With the advantage of first player in the market, Canon has build up a strong reputation to maintain market position. However, when existing company seeks to enter developing markets, there are additional strategies and issues to address. Canon usually replicates its style and the strategy that have serves it well without significant adaptation. Therefore, Canon normally enters new markets with the objectives of achieving greater market penetration. Largely, this approach has been successful for the company in China.

Essay on Narrator and Point of View in Yellow Wallpaper and Story of an

Narrator and Point of View in The Yellow Wallpaper and The Story of an Hour  Ã‚      Both Gilman's and Chopin's stories are, in effect, stories of women who feel "trapped" by the men in their lives. Gilman uses first person narration to reveal a woman's "creeping" loss of reality to her readers, while Chopin allows us to experience the joy Louise Mallard felt upon hearing of her husband's death through third person narration. Interestingly, neither story would have been able to reveal either woman's psyche to impact the reader as successfully as both did had their individual narrations been attempted through another form. In "The Yellow Wallpaper," Gilman's point of view is expressed through first person narration, which provides her readers with brief glimpses into the other characters' perception of her and her perceptions of them (which essentially enlightens readers), as well as the main character's active dissemination of what is occurring in her mind. First person narration can at times be considered biased or naive within the context of their perceptions and projections of other characters. Not so with the woman in "The Yellow Wallpaper." She seems to offer an almost unbiased perspective of husband John, which the reader notes from the beginning as she goes back and forth from justifying his attitude and behavior towards her--"Dear John! He loves me dearly, and hates to have me sick" (324)--to eventually becoming mistrustful of him: "The fact is I am getting a little afraid of John" (326). One ends up viewing John as completely oblivious yet superior in his lackadaisical attitude and treatment of his wife. Therefore one has little sympathy for John in the end (which I believe is also intended), when he finally realize... ...r V. Roberts and Henry E. Jacobs. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc. Simon Schuster/ A Viacom Company, 1998. 542-553. Gilman, Charlotte Perkins. "Why I Wrote 'The Yellow Wallpaper'" Ed. Catherine Lavender; The College of Staten Island of the City University of New York, Fall Semester, Oct. 1997. (25 Jan 1999)  Ã‚   http://www.library.csi.cuny.edu/dept/history/lavender/whyyw.html McChristie, Pat. "Women Need to Work" Copyright: 1998. Cyberwoman (30 Jan 1999) http://www.cyberparent.com/women/needwork.htm Wyatt, Neal "Biography of Kate Chopin" English 384: Women Writers. Ed. Ann M. Woodlief Copyright: 1998, Virginia Commonwealth University. (26 Jan. 1999) http://www.vcu.edu/engweb/eng384/katebio.htm "Why are Women Leaving Marriage in Droves?" Marriage. Copyright: 1998. Cyberwoman (30 Jan 1999) http://www.cyberparent.com/women/marriage1.htm

Functions of Management Essay

This seminar would not have been possible without the assistance of a number of eminent persons. First of all I thank God almighty for blessing this venture and finish successfully. I express my sincere thanks to Head of the Department, MBA Narayanaguru College Of Engineering,Chennai for his encouragement and support for the successful completion for this seminar. I also express my sincere gratitude to my guide, for the kind assistance, supervision, encouragement and constructive criticism, which gave me constant support amidst of her busy schedule throughout my seminar work. I also express my wholehearted gratitude to all my classmates who have co-operated and supported for doing this seminar. I also thank my family members for their loving support. I extend my sincere thanks and gratitude once again to all those who helped me to make this undertaking a success. INTRODUCTION Management is a universal phenomenon. It is a very popular and widely used term. All organizations – business, political, cultural or social are involved in management because it is the management which helps and directs the various efforts towards a definite purpose. According to Harold Koontz, â€Å"Management is an art of getting things done through and with the people in formally organized groups. It is an art of creating an environment in which people can perform and individuals and can co-operate towards attainment of group goals†. According to F. W. Taylor, â€Å"Management is an art of knowing what to do, when to do and see that it is done in the best and cheapest way†. Management is a purposive activity. It is something that directs group efforts towards the attainment of certain pre – determined goals. It is the process of working with and through others to effectively achieve the goals of the organization, by efficiently using limited resources in the changing world. Of course, these goals may vary from one enterprise to another. E. g. : For one enterprise it may be launching of new products by conducting market surveys and for other it may be profit maximization by minimizing cost. Management is often included as a factor of production along with‚ machines, materials, and money. According to the management guru Peter Drucker (1909-2005), the basic task of management includes both marketing and innovation. Practice of modern management originates from the 16th century study of low-efficiency and failures of certain enterprises, conducted by the English statesman Sir Thomas More (1478-1535). Management consists of the interlocking functions of creating corporate policy and organizing, planning, controlling, and directing an organization’sresources in order to achieve the objectives of that policy Management in all business and organizational activities is the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives using available resources efficiently and effectively. Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and controlling an organization (a group of one or more people or entities) or effort for the purpose of accomplishing a goal. Resourcing encompasses the deployment and manipulation of human resources, financial resources, technological resources and natural resources. One of the first persons to sit down and try to work out what managers do (and what they should do) was a Frenchman called Henri Fayol. Fayol was a mining engineer who became the managing director of an ailing coal mining firm and turned it into a highly successful coal and steel business. All this took place between 1888 and 1918, when he retired. In 1916, after many years of thinking about the job of the manager, he published a small book called General and Industrial Management. Henry Fayol was years ahead of his time in linking strategy and organizational theory and in emphasizing the need for management development and the qualities of leadership. Igor Ansoff, in Corporate Strategy (1965) said that Fayol ‘anticipated imaginatively and soundly most of the more recent analyses of modern business practice,’ although Peter Drucker in his great compendium Management: Tasks, Responsibilities and Practice (1973), criticized the application of Fayol’s functional approach to larger and more complex organizations than the one he knew and managed. Oddly enough, it was years before a translation appeared in English, even though it contains a great deal of wisdom and sense. Henri Fayol, the father of the school of Systematic Management, was motivated to create a theoretical foundation for a managerial educational program based on his experience as a successful managing director of a mining company. In his day, managers had no formal training and he observed that the increasing complexity of organisations would require more professional management. Fayol’s legacy is his generic Principles of Management. Of Fayol’s six generic activities for industrial undertakings (technical, commercial, financial, security, accounting, managerial), the most important were The Five Functions of Management that focused on the key relationships between personnel and its management. The Five Functions are: 1. Planning drawing up plans of actions that combine unity, continuity, flexibility and precision given the organisation’s resources, type and significance of work and future trends. Creating a plan of action is the most difficult of the five tasks and requires the active participation of the entire organisation. Planning must be coordinated on different levels and with different time horizons; 2. Organising providing capital, personnel and raw materials for the day-to-day running of the business, and building a structure to match the work. Organisational structure depends entirely on the number of employees. An increase in the number of functions expands the organisation horizontally and promotes additional layers of supervision; 3. Commanding optimising return from all employees in the interest of the entire enterprise. Successful managers have personal integrity, communicate clearly and base their judgments on regular audits. Their thorough knowledge of personnel creates unity, energy, initiative and loyalty and eliminates incompetence; 4. Coordinating unifying and harmonizing activities and efforts to maintain the balance between the activities of the organisation as in sales to production and procurement to production. Fayol recommended weekly conferences for department heads to solve problems of common interest; 5. Controlling identifying weaknesses and errors by controlling feedback, and conforming activities with plans, policies and instructions. Fayol’s management process went further than Taylor’s basic hierarchical model by allowing command functions to operate efficiently and effectively through co-ordination and control methods. For Fayol, the managing director overlooked a living organism that requires liaison officers and joint committees. The first and last functions—planning and control—are immediately recognizable from the analysis that has just been carried out, and indeed there tends to be less argument generally about these two functions than about others. Organizing is, of course, similar to planning in that it is concerned with preparation for some future events. But whereas planning is the more glamorous activity of deciding on the overall future direction of the business, organization is that tough, demanding business of putting together the elements in such a way that the overall plans succeed. Command is seen as the function that actually makes things happen. It is really derived from military practice, and no doubt in Fayol’s time all employees in organizations responded to command. The very word suggests ‘ordering about’ and has been the subject of a great deal of debate and argument. Fayol did not really intend it to be taken in a very narrow sense, but rather in the sense of making sure that things get done—the actual operations of the organization. As a result, all kinds of substitute words have been used in its place—like ‘direction’ and (horribly) ‘actuating’. The fifth function of management in Fayol’s view is that of co-ordination. It is concerned with harmony, with making sure that all the bits work together, and, like an orchestra under its conductor, play the same tune. This is the only function that does not seem easily to stand on its own and will be found to be part of planning, of organizing, of control, and the key to successful operations themselves. An organization, therefore, begins with a strategic plan or definition of goals, progresses to a structure to put that plan into action, is carried forward by controlled activity between manager and workforce, has the work of its disparate departments harmonized by coordinated management and, finally, is subject to checks on the efficiency of its working, preferably by the ndependent ‘staff’ departments separate from the functional departments. The five functions of management have been adequately discussed, but there are two other aspects of management that Fayol mentioned that must be looked at separately. Fayol believed that a manager obtained the best performance from his workforce by leadership qualities, by his knowledge of the business and his workers, and by the ability to ins till sense of mission. Qualities needed in a manger: †¢ Physical: healthy, vigorous; Mental: ability to understand and learn, judgment, mental vigor, adaptability; †¢ Moral: firmness, acceptance of responsibility, initiative, loyalty, tact; †¢ General Education: good general knowledge; †¢ Special Knowledge: for the work; †¢ Experience Fayol also stressed on the importance of managerial training, ‘steady, methodical training of all employees at all levels’, and made the point that a manager should not ignore his responsibility for his own training. Fayol’s 14 principles derive from the circumstance that Fayol felt that management was not well defined. In his striving to change this circumstance he suggested â€Å"some generalized teaching of management† to be a main part of every curriculum at places of higher education and even beginning in â€Å"primary schools† . Fayol’s dedication to this idea is demonstrated by the fact that after retirement he went on to not just write books about management ideas, but more importantly, he found the Centre For Administrative Studies (CAS) in 1917 in Paris . The CAS mainly functioned as a centre of discussion between professionals from a large variety of professions, in order to further the knowledge and understanding of management principles. Discussion is what Fayol had in mind, when he presented his 14 principles . In Fayol’s own words: â€Å"Are they [the principles] to have a place in the management code which is to be built up? General discussion will show†. In the following I will discuss each of his principles under the aspect of a comparison with examples, historic or modern, and in relation to other theoreticians of management, in order to examine how Fayol’s principles hold up as â€Å"management code† today. Following are the fourteen principles of management developed by the Henry Fayol: Division Of Work The idea of division of work, or as Adam Smith called it â€Å"division of labour†, in 1776 probably goes back to the beginning of work itself. Fayol recognizes this in considering specialization as part of â€Å"the natural order† comparing it to the organs of the body . â€Å"The object of division of work is to produce more and better work with the same effort†, Fayol describes. This very objective has not been altered in today’s labor. In a sense this principle is the fundamental feature of modern economy, allowing for the largest increases of productivity. Peter F. Drucker informs us, that the 20th century has seen a rate of 3% productivity increase per year, hence productivity has risen 50 fold since the time of Frederick Taylor, who acted as a catalyst in the development of division of work . An example of this fact can come from early industrialization, namely the Ford motor company , where Taylor’s system of a scientific approach was applied. Taylor was interested in skill development by means of standardization and functional specialization . One worker would assemble the dashboard, another would assemble the wheels, and yet another would paint the exterior. The effects of this are well known and lead to Ford becoming not just the predominant car maker but also the inventor of the conveyer-belt production system- revolutionizing many industries. However, one could argue that extremes of division of work could lead to undesired effects. Division of labor can ultimately reduce productivity and increase costs to produce units. Several reasons as causes for reduction in productivity can be thought of. For example, productivity can suffer when workers become bored with the constant repetition of a task. Additionally, productivity can be affected when workers lose pride in their work because they are not producing an entire product they can identify as their own work. Douglas M. McGregor for instance cautions that â€Å"people, deprived of opportunities to satisfy at work the needs which are now important to them, behave†¦with indolence, passivity,†¦lack of responsibility,†¦unreasonable demands for economic benefits† . This circumstance was probably well recognized by Fayol, when he states that the â€Å"division of work has its limits which experience and a sense of proportion teach us may not be exceeded† According to Henry Fayol under division of work, â€Å"The worker always on the same post, the manager always concerned with the same matters, acquire an ability, sureness and accuracy which increases their output. In other words, division of work means specialization. According to this principle, a person is not capable of doing all types of work. Each job and work should be assigned to the specialist of his job. Division of work promotes efficiency because it permits an organizational member to work in a limited area reducing the scope of his responsibility. Fayol wanted the division of work not only at factory but at management levels also. 2. Authority and Responsibility Authority and responsibility go together or co-existing. Both authority and responsible are the two sides of a coin. In this way, if anybody is made responsible for any job, he should also have the concerned authority. Fayol’s principle of management in this regard is that an efficient manager makes best possible use of his authority and does not escape from the responsibility. In other awards when the authority is exercised the responsibility. In other awards when the authority is exercised the responsibility is automatically generated. The division of an enterprise into distinct departments, each independent of the others but subject to a common authority, has diverse causes such as the great growth of business, or a diversity of operations demanding very different capabilities or the physical separation of the various activities. Whatever the cause for which this division into departments exists, one must, under the penalty of duality of command, make sure that each service and each function is clearly defined and delimited. These departments, functions and powers, created arbitrarily, generally have no independent existence; one could always constitute them differently and they can be changed. But as soon as they have been instituted they must be defined and delimited very clearly. If not, certain parts will be neglected or forgotten while other parts will be handled by several authorities at once. Much vigilance is necessary to avoid these twin perils. The definition of departments and functions carries with it, naturally, the specifications of rights, duties and responsibilities for each. Each must know to whom and for what he gives orders, to whom and for what he must obey. On the other hand, each person in authority at every hierarchical level must always be familiar with what is going on in all areas under him. The means that can be used to carry out this responsibility are: direct supervision, control, meetings, reports and a good accounting system. 3. Discipline The Dictionary Larousse defines this as follows: â€Å"A group of unspoken rules or of written rules intended to ensure good order and regularity in a company or an assembly. ’’ This definition seems to me to be exact. Here we are not faced with the principle but an essential rule contingent or dependent on the goal, the constitution, the personalities and so on. These rules, which are as numerous as they are varied, have almost exclusively as their goal the achievement of Unity of Command and its corollaries. The rights, duties, responsibilities, and the place of each person must be determined and specified. Good rules greatly facilitate the progress of events. But whatever the value of these rules might be, their effectiveness and discipline itself will always depend on much tact, much skill and the conduct of the leaders. According to Henry Fayol discipline means sincerity about the work and enterprise, carrying out orders and instructions of superiors and to have faith in the policies and programmes of the business enterprise, in other sense, discipline in terms of obedience, application, energy and respect to superior. However, Fayol does not advocate warming, fines, suspension and dismissals of worker for maintaining discipline. These punishments are rarely awarded. A well disciplined working force is essential for improving the quality and quantity of the production. 4. Unity of Command As an enterprise grows, there comes a time when the leader can no longer provide personal direction to every employee: he therefore appoints intermediaries to transmit directives and to supervise their execution. As the enterprise grows even further, the leader cannot even direct these first level intermediaries and he is obliged to create others to transmit his directives to the first and thus a hierarchy is formed. Its origin is therefore independent of â€Å"Unity of Command’’: it results from a limitation of personal abilities. But the principles of â€Å"Unity of Command’’ requires that the Leader pass through these intermediaries to reach the lower-level employees; departure from these regular channels provokes duality. Such is the â€Å"Hierarchical transmission of orders’’ which is commonly known as the Hierarchical Principle. The results of ignoring this principle are ruffled feelings; discontent, discouragement and conflict, just like the result of ignoring the fundamental principle. Nevertheless, infractions are fairly frequent though sometimes caused by good intentions: for example, perhaps there is an agent at the third level who, finding that the normal channels are too long, gives orders directly to a first-level employee (X1), without passing through X2; meanwhile someone at the fourth level (X4) believing that he hasn’t been understood, or for some other reason, gives direct orders to X2, resulting in a duality of command and the inevitable consequences; discontent, confusion of responsibilities and the work is held up. In practice one constantly has to compromise respect for the hierarchical channel with the need for timely response. A subordinate should take order from only one boss and he should be responsible and accountable to him. Further he claimed that if the unit of command is violated, authority is undermined, disciplined in danger, order disturbed and stability threatened. The violation of this principle will face some serious consequences. In this way, the principle of unity of command provides the enterprise disciplined, stable and orderly existence. It creates harmonious relationship between officers and subordinates, congenial atmosphere of work. It is one of the Fayol’s important essential principle of management. 5. Unity of Direction Fayol summarizes this principle with the words: â€Å"one head and one plan for a group† . Hence, this point is naturally closely connected to the unity of command principle. Again Sloan and GM can serve as an example. Sloan introduced a wide variety of metrics in order to measure the performance of departments and the firms that were part of the GM concern. His attitude is ummarized in his words: â€Å"We have such control over this ship [the GM corporation] that we know exactly where we are at all times† . Or as Fayol said: â€Å"Unity of direction is provided for by sound organization of the body corporate†¦Ã¢â‚¬  . That means first one must know where to take the company and subsequently constantly assure that the plan is still on track. The success story of GM un der Sloan exemplifies the validity of this principleFayol advocates â€Å"One head and one plan† which means that group efforts on a particular plan be led and directed by a single person. This enables effective co-ordination of individual efforts and energy. This fulfils the principles of unity of command and brings uniformity in the work of same nature. In this way the principle of direction create dedication to purpose and loyalty. It emphasizes the attainment of common goal under one head. 6. Subordination of individual interests to general interests The interest of the business enterprise ought to come before the interests of the praise individual workers. In other words, principle of management state that employees should surrender their personnel interest before the general interest of the enterprise. Sometimes the employees due to this ignorance, selfishness, laziness, carelessness and emotional pleasure overlook the interest of the organisation. This attitude proves to be very harmful to the enterprise. An organization is much bigger than the individual it constitutes therefore interest of the undertaking should prevail in all circumstances. As far as possible, reconciliation should be achieved between individual and group interests. But in case of conflict, individual must sacrifice for bigger interests. In order to achieve this attitude, it is essential that – Employees should be honest & sincere. Proper & regular supervision of work. – Reconciliation of mutual differences and clashes by mutual agreement. For example, for change of location of plant, for change of profit sharing ratio, etc. 7. Fair Remuneration to employees According to Fayol wage-rates and method of their payment should be fair, proper and satisfactory. Both employees and ex-employers sh ould agree to it. Logical and appropriate wage-rate and methods of their payment reduces tension and differences between workers and management, create harmonious relationship and a pleasing atmosphere of work. Further Fayol recommends that residential facilities be provided including arrangement of electricity, water and facilities. 8. Centralization and Decentralization The command exercised by the higher authority and which, be it direct or through successive levels in the organization, reaches all parts of the organization, and the responses which return in the reverse sense, either directly or through the levels, to the central authority, constitute what one has rightly called â€Å"Centralization. ’’ It is not an arbitrary institution nor is it optional. It is an inevitable consequence, enforced, in fact, by Unity of Command. Centralization can be practiced in greatly different ways: the field can be left open for individual initiative, or it can be completely stifled. One finds examples ranging from a rigid structure with only passive obedience, to a vibrant organism where freedom of action spreads out with the most perfect subordination. One leader, having great ability and a great influence can, without inconveniencing a small business, handle all matters, make his own decisions and impose a passive obedience: as the enterprise grows, such a leader will become inadequate and his method will be deplored. Another leader will give a lot of authority to his subordinates, but what happens if these subordinates are only mediocre? It is therefore a matter of degree: one must consider the importance of various circumstances, the special difficulties which they cause, their extent, the distance which separates the various parts of the business and so on: one must also take account of the value of the employees. Only consideration of the circumstances can decide the respective balance between power and initiative, which it may be convenient to give to all employees. At the same time, it seems certain to me, the matter of subordinating being separate, that one must give all employees the largest amount of freedom of action and initiative possible. The strength of the leaders is augmented through the strength brought by lower-level employees and therefore they must be developed to the maximum extent possible. Let us not forget, in passing, that personal satisfaction and self-respect are often stronger than self-interest when it comes to stimulating individual initiative. The great problem of centralization and decentralization can therefore be summarized s follows: compulsory centralization with the greatest possible individual initiative. As for the amount of authority and initiative to be given to each person, each case must be considered separately, it is the eternal question of degree, which is the great and continuing preoccupation of the administrator. Whether one buys or sells, builds or demolishes, recruits or dismisses, punishes or reward s, in a word acts or refrains from action, the line to follow is never clearly defined: one must select from various alternatives. Neither principles nor rules can abolish arbitrary decisions. There should be one central point in the organisation which exercises overall direction and control of all the parts. But the degree of centralization of authority should vary according to the needs of situation. According to Fayol there should be centralization in small units and proper decentralization in big organisation. Further, Fayol does not favor centralization or decentralization of authorities but suggests that these should be proper and effective adjustment between centralization and decentralization in order to achieve maximum objectives of the business. The choice between centralization and decentralization be made after taking into consideration the nature of work and the efficiency, experience and decision-making capacity of the executives. 9. Scalar Chain The scalar chain is a chain of supervisors from the highest to the lowest rank. It should be short-circuited. An employee should feel the necessity to contact his superior through the scalar chain. The authority and responsibility is communicated through this scalar chain. Fayol defines scalar chain as â€Å"the chain of superiors ranging from the ultimate authority to the lowest rank. The flow of information between management and workers is a must. Business opportunities must be immediately avoided of. so we must make direct contact with the concerned employee. Business problems need immediate solution, so we cannot always depend on the established scalar chain. It requires that direct contact should be established. Every orders, instructions, messages, requests, explanation etc. has to pass through Scalar chain. But, for the sake of convenience & urgency, this path can be cut shirt and this short cut is known as Gang Plank. A Gang Plank is a temporary arrangement between two different In the figure given, if D has to communicate with G he will first send the communication upwards with the help of C, B to A and then downwards with the help of E and F to G which will take quite some time and by that time, it may not be worth therefore a gang plank has been developed between the two. Gang Plank clarifies that management principles are not rigid rather they are very flexible. They can be moulded and modified as per the requirements of situations 10. Order: According to Fayol there should be proper, systematic and orderly arrangement of physical and social factors, such as land, raw materials, tools and equipments and employees respectively. As per view, there should be safe, appropriate and specific place for every article and every place to be used effectively for a particular activity and commodity. In other words, principles that every piece of land and every article should be used properly, economically and in the best possible way. Selection and appointment of the most suitable person to every job. There should be specific place for every one and every one should have specific place. This principle also stresses scientific selection and appointment of employees on every job. One knows the formula for material order:â€Å"a place for everything and everything in its place. ’’ At the same time should there not be a specified place for everything and someone designated to put everything in that place? Unity of Command indirectly deals with this matter by imposing delimitation of departments and of the authorities, which are responsible for them. Every act of the enterprise and everything belonging to it must have its respondent, that is to say, someone who is responsible for it. It is order in deeds and with things: it is the means of avoiding waste of material and time and for avoiding conflicts. Thus, Unity of Command appears with its retinue of secondary principles as an important and fundamental natural law, and this impression is only strengthened as one studies the point further. No one denies its importance; many people are vaguely aware of it but its value is only really appreciated by a few and if one considers that as with every good rule of housekeeping it gets in the way of imaginative solutions, one can explain why it is violated so often. Numerous infractions occur, such as orders which arrive at their destination without having followed the hierarchical route, such as the encroachment by one department upon another, such as the stopping or disarray of the administrative mechanism due to the absence of the leader, and so on. At least five times out of ten it is errors of this type, which upset the business. 11. Equity â€Å"Equity and equality of treatment are aspirations to be taken into account in dealing with employees†, Fayol says. Clearly, this standard is not easily achieved, however, today’s work environment is arguably more equipped to tackle this issue than previous generations of corporations. One indication for this claim is to be found in the fact that most companies have appointed officials who deal with complaints of employees against the management, for instance the so-called ombudsman . However, this system is naturally not fool proof and private organizations attempt to draw attention to the victims of mistreatment. One example is an organization taking care of claims of victims of mobbing within the company Novartis . While the problem still persists, Fayol’s principle is being recognized by corporations and enhanced by the public opinion and most importantly the lawmakers . Several nations, e. g. Germany, Sweden and others, intend to tackle the problem of unequal treatment by passing laws that intend to establish a juridical basis for people who fell victim of inequality. The principle of equality should be followed and applicable at every level of management. There should not be any discrimination as regards caste, sex and religion. An effective management always accords sympathetic and human treatment. The management should be kind, honest and impartial with the employees. In other words, kindness and justice should be exercised by management in dealing with their subordinates. This will create loyalty and devotion among the employees. Thus, workers should be treated at par at every level. Equity means combination of fairness, kindness & justice. The employees should be treated with kindness & equity if devotion is expected of them. It implies that managers should be fair and impartial while dealing with the subordinates. They should give similar treatment to people of similar position. They should not discriminate with respect to age, caste, sex, religion, relation etc. Equity is essential to create and maintain cordial relations between the managers and sub-ordinate. But equity does not mean total absence of harshness. Fayol was of opinion that, â€Å"at times force and harshness might become necessary for the sake of equity†. 12. Stability of use of personnel It is Fayol’s opinion that it is better to have a â€Å"mediocre manager who stays† than â€Å"outstanding mangers who merely come and go† . Fayol does not only apply this idea to management though, he also points to negative effects of a lack of stability when it comes to employees. While this point might be debatable to some extend it is clear that stability contributes to better planning possibilities. It also allows for a psychologically beneficial state of mind of the employees, hence certainly improving efficiency and the willingness to perform well for the corporation’s good. Apparently however, this rule of requirement has not sunken in generally. This is demonstrated by the fact that most countries have passed employee protection regulations when it comes to the reasons why people can be laid off. Internationally the International Labor Organization, a section of the United Nations, watches over various aspects of employment and also deals with unfair dismissals of employees . While from an employee perspective the protection laws make sense, employers may occasionally view this issue differently. In fact, it is easy to find web-blogs with advice how to fire workers without ensuing lawsuit and some influential individuals, for instance Chandrajit Banerjee, head of the Confederation of the Indian Industry , demands it to become easier to hire and fire in India . Maybe a way out of this dilemma and back to following Fayol’s principle can derive from an example Henry Chesbrough gave when discussing differences in culture between the USA and Japan . Chesbrough describes how little loyalty US-employees exhibit compared to the Japanese counterparts. He also analyses the reason as stemming from the fact that Japanese firms have a tighter relation to their employees. He for example points to a better social security system, like pension plans, in Japan. The spill-over effect that endangers US American companies to loose important innovative advantages by losing skilled employees to other companies is thereby contained in Japan. This example shows that stability of tenure is not only important but connected to social and cultural factors management must take into account if they want to maximize their productive capacity. It also shows, that this principle is a two-way street. While stability is important for the employee it is just as important for the employer. One would think that this leads to both parties pulling in the same direction. But as we can see from the above example, it requires a change of mind in some instances to establish an environment of trust and mutual care. Principle of stability is linked with long tenure of personnel in the organisation. This means production being a team work, an efficient management always builds a team of good workers. If the members of the team go on changing the entire process of production will be disturbed. It is always in the interest of the enterprise that its trusted, experienced and trained employees do not leave the organisation. Stability of job creates a sense of belongingness among workers who with this feeling are encouraged to improve the quality and quantity of work. Fayol emphasized that employees should not be moved frequently from one job position to another i. e. the period of service in a job should be fixed. Therefore employees should be appointed after keeping in view principles of recruitment & selection but once they are appointed their services should be served. According to Fayol. Time is required for an employee to get used to a new work & succeed to doing it well but if he is removed before that he will not be able to render worthwhile services†. As a result, the time, effort and money spent on training the worker will go waste. Stability of job creates team spirit and a sense of belongingness among workers which ultimately increase the quality as w ell as quantity of work. 13. Initiative Fayol summarizes the need for employees to show initiative in the saying, that â€Å"the initiative of all, added to that of the manager†¦represents a great source of strength for businesses† . He suggests to management to â€Å"inspire and maintain everyone’s initiative†. Some modernly run companies have come to find their special ways in order to ensure employee satisfaction, and, concomitantly their initiative. One example is again Google and their policy of â€Å"20% time† . This policy implies that employees get a large part of their time to invest in projects of their choosing. While these projects are not necessarily connected to their immediate work tasks experience has shown, that they often built the basis for spin-off ideas that benefit the firm. Others, like 3M and various Biotech and Pharmaceutical companies have followed suit, and it is said that 3M has developed the post-it notes as a spin-off of an idea conceived during a personal project period . As a Google employee put it: â€Å"the 20 percent policy is as important to attracting and retaining employees as it is to sparking fresh ideas†. Business professor Robert Fulmer at Pepperdine University adds: â€Å"Paradoxically, letting go of employees through independent projects can mean getting more from them. It’s a way to get people to go beyond what’s expected of them†. Apparently, with the right strategies a company can increase employee participation and initiative by given the â€Å"inspiration† Fayol requested from the management. Workers should be encouraged to take initiative in the work assigned to them. It means eagerness to initiate actions without being asked to do so. Fayol advised that management should provide opportunity to its employees to suggest ideas, experiences& new method of work. It helps in developing an atmosphere of trust and understanding. People then enjoy working in the organization because it adds to their zeal and energy. To suggest improvement in formulation & implementation of place. They can be encouraged with the help of monetary & non-monetary incentives. Under this principle, the successful management provides an opportunity to its employees to suggest their new ideas, experiences and more convenient methods of work. The employees, who has been working on the specific job since long discover now, better alternative approach and technique of work. It will be more useful, if initiative to do so is provided to employees. In simple, to ensure success, plans should be well formulated before they are implemented. 14. Espirit De’ Corps (can be achieved through unity of command) It refers to team spirit i. e. harmony in the work groups and mutual understanding among the members. Spirit De’ Corps inspires workers to work harder. Fayol cautioned the managers against dividing the employees into competing groups because it might damage the moral of the workers and interest of the undertaking in the long run. To inculcate Espirit De’ Corps following steps should be undertaken – There should be proper co-ordination of work at all levels Subordinates should be encouraged to develop informal relations among themselves. Efforts should be made to create enthusiasm and keenness among subordinates so that they can work to the maximum ability. Efficient employees should be rewarded and those who are not up to the mark should be given a chance to improve their performance. Subordinates should be made conscious of that whatever they are doing is of great importance to the business & society. He also cautioned against the more use of Britain communication to the subordinates i. e. face to face communication should be developed. The managers should infuse team spirit & belongingness. There should be no place for misunderstanding. People then enjoy working in the organization & offer their best towards the organization. In order to achieve the best possible results, individual and group effort are to be effectively integrated and coordinated. Production is a team work for which the whole-hearted support and co-operation of the members at all levels is required. Everyone should sacrifice his personal interest and contribute his best energies to achieve the best results. it refers to the spirit of loyalty, faithfulness on the part of the members of the group which can be achieved by strong motivating recognition and importance of the members for their valuable contribution, effective coordination, informal mutual social relationship between members of the group and positive and constructive approach of the management towards workers’ welfare SEMINAR 3 MANAGEMENT LEVELS Managers are organizational members who are responsible for the work performance of other organizational members. Managers have formal authority to use organizational resources and to make decisions. In organizations, there are typically three levels of management: top-level, middle-level, and first-level. These three main levels of managers form a hierarchy, in which they are ranked in order of importance. In most organizations, the number of managers at each level is such that the hierarchy resembles a pyramid, with many more first-level managers, fewer middle managers, and the fewest managers at the top level. Each of these management levels is described below in terms of their possible job titles and their primary responsibilities and the paths taken to hold these positions. Additionally, there are differences across the management levels as to what types of management tasks each does and the roles that they take in their jobs. Finally, there are a number of changes that are occurring in many organizations that are changing the management hierarchies in them, such as the increasing use of teams, the prevalence of outsourcing, and the flattening of organizational structures. Top-Level Managers Top-level managers, or top managers, are also called senior management or executives. These individuals are at the top one or two levels in an organization, and hold titles such as: Chief Executive Officer (CEO), Chief Financial Officer (CFO), Chief Operational Officer (COO), Chief Information Officer (CIO), Chairperson of the Board, President, Vice president, Corporate head. Often, a set of these managers will constitute the top management team, which is composed of the CEO, the COO, and other department heads. Top-level managers make decisions affecting the entirety of the firm. Top managers do not direct the day-to-day activities of the firm; rather, they set goals for the organization and direct the company to achieve them. Top managers are ultimately responsible for the performance of the organization, and often, these managers have very visible jobs. Top managers in most organizations have a great deal of managerial experience and have moved up through the ranks of management within the company or in another firm. An exception to this is a top manager who is also an entrepreneur; such an individual may start a small company and manage it until it grows enough to support several levels of management. Many top managers possess an advanced degree, such as a Masters in Business Administration, but such a degree is not required. Some CEOs are hired in from other top management positions in other companies. Conversely, they may be promoted from within and groomed for top management with management development activities, coaching, and mentoring. They may be tagged for promotion through succession planning, which identifies high potential managers. Middle-Level Managers Middle-level managers, or middle managers, are those in the levels below top managers. Middle managers’ job titles include: General manager, Plant manager, Regional manager, and Divisional manager. Middle-level managers are responsible for carrying out the goals set by top management. They do so by setting goals for their departments and other business units. Middle managers can motivate and assist first-line managers to achieve business objectives. Middle managers may also communicate upward, by offering suggestions and feedback to top managers. Because middle managers are more involved in the day-to-day workings of a company, they may provide valuable information to top managers to help improve the organization’s bottom line. Jobs in middle management vary widely in terms of responsibility and salary. Depending on the size of the company and the number of middle-level managers in the firm, middle managers may supervise only a small group of employees, or they may manage very large groups, such as an entire business location. Middle managers may be employees who were promoted from first-level manager positions within the organization, or they may have been hired from outside the firm. Some middle managers may have aspirations to hold positions in top management in the future. First-Level Managers First-level managers are also called first-line managers or supervisors. These managers have job titles such as: Office manager, Shift supervisor, Department manager, Foreperson, Crew leader, Store manager. First-line managers are responsible for the daily management of line workershe employees who actually produce the product or offer the service. There are first-line managers in every work unit in the organization. Although first-level managers typically do not set goals for the organization, they have a very strong influence on the company. These are the managers that most employees interact with on a daily basis, and if the managers perform poorly, employees may also perform poorly, may lack motivation, or may leave the company. In the past, most first-line managers were employees who were promoted from line positions (such as production or clerical jobs). Rarely did these employees have formal education beyond the high school level. However, many first-line managers are now graduates of a trade school, or have a two-year associates or a four-year bachelor’s degree from college. Management Levels And The Four Managerial Functions Managers at different levels of the organization engage in different amounts of time on the four managerial functions of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. Planning is choosing appropriate organizational goals and the correct directions to achieve those goals. Organizing involves determining the tasks and the relationships that allow employees to work together to achieve the planned goals. With leading, managers motivate and coordinate employees to work together to achieve organizational goals. When controlling, managers monitor and measure the degree to which the organization has reached its goals. The degree to which top, middle, and supervisory managers perform each of these functions is presented in Exhibit 1. Note that top managers do considerably more planning, organizing, and controlling than do managers at any other level. However, they do much less leading. Most of the leading is done by first-line managers. The amount of planning, organizing, and controlling decreases down the hierarchy of management; leading increases as you move down the hierarchy of management. Time Spent on Management Functions at Different Management Levels   Several defining characteristics demarcate management skills and differentiate them from other kinds of managerial characteristics and practices. First, management skills are behavioral. They are not personality attributes or stylistic tendencies. Management skills consist of identifiable sets of actions that individuals perform and that lead to certain outcomes. Skills can be observed by others, unlike attributes that are purely mental or are embedded in personality. Whereas people with different styles and personalities may apply the skills differently, there are, nevertheless, a core set of observable attributes in effective skill performance that are common across a range of individual differences. Second, management skills are controllable. The performance of these behaviors is under the control of the individual. Unlike organizational practices such as â€Å"selectively hiring,† or cognitive activities such as â€Å"transcending fear,† skills can be consciously demonstrated, practiced, improved, or restrained by individuals themselves. Skills may certainly engage other people and require cognitive work, but they are behaviors that people can control themselves. Third, management skills are developable. Performance can improve. Unlike IQ or certain personality or temperament attributes that remain relatively constant throughout life, individuals can improvement their competency in skill performance through practice and feedback. Individuals can progress from less competence to more competence in management skills, and that outcome is the primary objective of this book. Fourth, management skills are interrelated and overlapping. It is difficult to demonstrate just one skill in isolation from others. Skills are not simplistic, repetitive behaviors, but they are integrated sets of complex responses. Effective managers, in particular, must rely on combinations of skills to achieve desired results. For example, in order to effectively motivate others, skills such as supportive communication, influence, empowerment, and self-awareness may be required. Effective managers, in other words, develop a constellation of skills that overlap and support one another and that allow flexibility in managing diverse situations. Fifth, management skills are sometimes contradictory or paradoxical. For example, the core management skills are neither all soft and humanistic in orientation nor all hard-driving and directive. They are oriented neither toward teamwork and interpersonal relations exclusively nor toward individualism and technical entrepreneurship exclusively. A variety of skills are typical of the most effective managers, and some of them appear incompatible. Regardless of organizational level, all managers must have five critical skills: technical skill, interpersonal skill, conceptual skill, diagnostic skill, and political skill. Technical Skill. Technical skill involves understanding and demonstrating proficiency in a particular workplace activity. Technical skills are things such as using a computer word processing program, creating a budget, operating a piece of machinery, or preparing a presentation. The technical skills used will differ in each level of management. First-level managers may engage in the actual operations of the organization; they need to have an understanding of how production and service occur in the organization in order to direct and evaluate line employees. Additionally, first-line managers need skill in scheduling workers and preparing budgets. Middle managers use more technical skills related to planning and organizing, and top managers need to have skill to understand the complex financial workings of the organization. Interpersonal Skill. Interpersonal skill involves human relations, or the manager’s ability to interact effectively with organizational members. Communication is a critical part of interpersonal skill, and an inability to communicate effectively can prevent career progression for managers. Managers who have excellent technical skill, but poor interpersonal skill are unlikely to succeed in their jobs. This skill is critical at all levels of management. Conceptual Skill. Conceptual skill is a manager’s ability to see the organization as a whole, as a complete entity. It involves understanding how organizational units work together and how the organization fits into its competitive environment. Conceptual skill is crucial for top managers, whose ability to see â€Å"the big picture† can have major repercussions on the success of the business. However, conceptual skill is still necessary for middle and supervisory managers, who must use this skill to envision, for example, how work units and teams are best organized. Diagnostic Skill. Diagnostic skill is used to investigate problems, decide on a remedy, and implement a solution. Diagnostic skill involves other skillsechnical, interpersonal, conceptual, and politic. For instance, to determine the root of a problem, a manager may need to speak with many organizational members or understand a variety of informational documents. The difference in the use of diagnostic skill acr0oss the three levels of management is primarily due to the types of problems that must be addressed at each level. For example, first-level managers may deal primarily with issues of motivation and discipline, such as determining why a particular employee’s performance is flagging and how to improve it. Middle managers are likely to deal with issues related to larger work units, such as a plant or sales office. For instance, a middle-level manager may have to diagnose why sales in a retail location have dipped. Top managers diagnose organization-wide problems, and may address issues such as strategic position, the possibility of outsourcing tasks, or opportunities for overseas expansion of a business. Political Skill. Political skill involves obtaining power and preventing other employees from taking away one’s power. Managers use power to achieve organizational objectives, and this skill can often reach goals with less effort than others who lack political skill. Much like the other skills described, political skill cannot stand alone as a manager’s skill; in particular, though, using political skill without appropriate levels of other skills can lead to promoting a manager’s own career rather than reaching organizational goals. Managers at all levels require political skill; managers must avoid others taking control that they should have in their work positions. Top managers may find that they need higher levels of political skill in order to successfully operate in their environments. CONCLUSION * Management has been identified as the systematic body of knowledge based on general principles,concepts,theories and techniques which are variable in terms of business practice. These are embodied in the managerial functions of planning,organising,planning,controlling and directing which form the job of a manager. * In the organisation there are 3 levels called top level,middle level and lower level management ,each one having important role in smooth running of the organisation. * The lack of management skills will lead to poor decision making.

Article Review: a Chronic Inflammatory Disease Essay

Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease of the airways. Those that are susceptible to asthma, this inflammation can cause the airways to spasm and swell periodically so that the airways become narrow. The individual will then wheeze or gasp for air. Obstruction to air flow either resolves spontaneously or responds to a wide range of treatments, but continuing inflammation makes the airways hyper-responsive to stimuli such as cold air, exercise, dust mites, pollutants in the air, and even stress and anxiety (TheFreeDictionary). The articles â€Å"Asthma treated with integrative medicine† and â€Å"Asthma linked to celiac disease† both discuss how asthma is a problem to people of all ages and can ultimately linked to other diseases like celiac disease. No one can actually pinpoint how long asthma has been around for but it has been traced back to as early as 3000 B.C. which is the Egyptians era. As we know some people can have asthma at birth without knowing until they have difficulty breathing, some may call it a panic attack, but it can become a serious problem if left untreated. Asthma has become a major health issue around the world and each person has a different experience with his or her asthma. Asthma in terms can become chronic, and a long term disease which can affect our breathing. . Asthma can affect the community in different ways such as allergies and the biggest way that it would affect the community is by chemicals and smoking. When chemicals are burned or disposed of improperly it can pollute the air which makes people that have asthma susceptible to asthma attacks. Depending on how bad their case of asthma is inhaling smoke from someone smoking near them can also trigger an asthma attack. Chemicals such as sulfur dioxide and sulfites are used to preserve foods and beverages can also trigger an asthma attack. The community around has responded to this problem by having people test for asthma at younger ages and making more areas smoking free such as schools and hospitals and parks. The health department had also made the policies where restaurants and stores are only allowed to have a certain amount of chemicals in their food to help prevent people with asthma and other related diseases from getting panic attacks. In conclusion a problem in our community is asthma. Asthma is can become chronic, and a long term disease which can affect our breathing in all stages of our lives. Asthma has been around for a long time. Asthma affects our community in many ways. One of the ways it affects us is when chemicals are not disposed of in the correct manner it affects the way people with asthma breathe. The community has responded to this problem by making more places smoking free. References Neustaedter, Randall(2011).Asthma treated with integrative medicine. Retrieved August 1, 2011 from http://www.naturalnews.com/032000_asthma_integrative_medicine.html McCook, Allison (2011). Asthma linked to celiac disease..Retrieved August 1, 2011 from http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/02/24/us-asthma-linked-celiac-disease-idUSTRE71N4WF20110224 TheFreeDictionary.com, (2008). Definition of asthma. Retrieved August 1, 2011 http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/asthma

Natural Blends Inc Essays

Natural Blends Inc Essays Natural Blends Inc Essay Natural Blends Inc Essay NATURAL BLENDS Inc Here we have 3 processes to consider, the Extraction, Filtration and Concentration. Extraction has a maximum capacity of 20,000 lbs/hr Filtration has a maximum capacity of 20,000 lbs/hr Concentration has a maximum capacity of 18,000 lbs/hr For Extraction we have a setup time of 20 minutes. For Filtration we have a setup time of 30 minutes after 90 minutes of filtration. For Concentration there is no setup time loss. The processes are simultaneous in nature, and there is no buffer in between. So, if there is a shutdown of a single process, the entire system shuts down. Now, if we do consider a 2 hour time slot, then there will be effectively production for 1 and ? hours due to filtration setup time: For Extraction: The maximum production is 30,000 lbs. For Filtration: The maximum production is 30,000 lbs. For Concentration: The maximum production is 27,000 lbs. So the bottle neck operation is the Concentration process and the production rate will be 13,500 lbs/hour. A cycle is completed in 2hrs. PART A Assumption: We are considering that since oranges are of same type the bin will be changed after 3 and ? rs of production. The bin will be changed when the Filtration process will be stopped to change filter. Hence, saving valuable time. 1a. Amount of orange production possible in 1 day (8 Hrs) =13500*8=108000 lbs There is a loss of utilization time of 30 mins (due to filtration process) per 2 hours of the whole system. 1b. The idle time for the extraction process in a day would be = (1/2)*4= 2 hours We see that there is a bottle neck condition in th e Concentration process, so we will install a storage capacity in between Filtration and Concentration. a. We will add storage tank between step 3 and step 4. The capacity of tank will be 3000 lbs. 2b. If we add storage tank between step 2 and step 3, then The maximum production of Extraction process is 20,000lbs/hr. The maximum production of Filtration is also 20,000lbs/hr. But Filtration works for only 90 min. So effective production rate is =20,000*1. 5 =30,000lbs for 2 hrs i. e. 15,000/hr considering a cycle of 2 hrs the maximum production of Extraction is 40,000 lbs and that of Filtration is 30,000. Thus a tank of capacity 5,000lbs can be added between them. But adding tank between Extraction and Filtration will not increase the daily production. When a storage tank is added between Filtration and Concentration, Now for 2 hours slot, we see that there is a processing deficit of 3000(30,000-27,000) lbs. So we install storage of capacity 3000lbs. This will increase the daily production. Daily production= 30,0004= 120,000 lbs Thus there is increase of 12,000lbs/day after adding a storage tank. 3a. Additional fixtures of $20,000 for Filtration process and $10,000 for Extraction should be done to maximize the output. 3b. As discussed in question 2a and 2b the capacity of storage tank, which can be added between Filtration and Concentration should be 3,000lbs. The cost of construction of tank is given as $30/lbs. Hence the total cost for construction of storage tank will be 30 x 3000= $90,000, and the production will increase to 120,000 lbs/day. When additional fixtures are added in Filtration and Extraction process the setup time will reduce by 50% i. . the setup time for Extraction will be 10 min and that for Filtration will be 15 min. So our 2 hour cycle will be reduced to 1 hr 45min cycle. So an additional 1 hr will be available for production. Now number cycle per day will increase to= 8/1. 75= 4. 57 cycles per day. The production in one cycle will be same i. e. 27,000lbs. Hence the daily production will increase to 27,000 x 4. 57= 123,390 lbs The cost of improvement will be $20,000 for Filtration and $10,000 for extraction. Hence total cost will be $30,000. PART B Assumption: Since the amount of different sizes of oranges processed should be equal in a week and each size should be processed at least once per day, we can consider the following schedule; DAY0-2hrs2-4 hrs4-6 hrs6-8 hrs 1BAAC 2C BBA 3A CCB 4BCCA 5CBBA 6ACCB Where A, B and C represents large, medium and small oranges respectively, such that A=B=C 4a. The setup change in Extraction will happen for three times. 4b. As seen in the above schedule the setup is changed for 3 times. 4c. The quantity of oranges of particular size which will be processed before switching to other size will be 54,000 pounds. The maximum time same size of oranges will be processed is 4 hrs. The production for 2hr cycle is 27,000lbs, hence the maximum quantity is 54,000lbs. 4d. The total amount of juice concentrate processed is 108,000 lbs. as the production for 1 cycle of 2 hrs is 27,000lbs and there are 4 such cycles hence total production will be 108,000 lbs Submitted by:- Joydeep Mukherjee Rejo Matthew Tushar Deshmukh Vinay Panwar

Euthanasia2 essays

Euthanasia2 essays The origin of the word 'euthanasia' comes from the Greek eu, "good," and thanatos, "death," meaning literally, "good death." But the word "euthanasia" has acquired a more complex meaning in modern times. It is generally taken nowadays to mean doing something about achieving a good death. Suicide, self-deliverance, auto-euthanasia, aid-in-dying, assisted suicide call it what you like can be justified by the average supporter of the so-called '"right to die" movement. It is advanced terminal illness that is causing unbearable suffering to the individual. This is the most common reason to seek an early end. Grave physical handicap which is so restricting that the individual cannot, even after due consideration, counseling and retraining, tolerate such a limited existence. This is a fairly rare reason for suicide most impaired people cope remarkably well with their affliction but there are some who would, at a certain point, rather die. What are the ethical parameters for eu thanasia? The person is a mature adult. This is essential. The exact age will depend on the individual but the person should not be a minor who comes under quite different laws. The person has clearly made a considered decision. An individual has the ability nowadays to indicate this with a "Living Will" (which applies only to disconnection of life supports) and can also, in today's more open and tolerant climate about such actions, freely discuss the option of euthanasia with health professionals, family, lawyers, etc. My position is that euthanasia should be legalized for the terminally ill. Because of the increasing number of suicides in Michigan, Gov. John Engler signed an anti-suicide law that made doctor-assisted suicides a felony. During the 21-month trial period of the new law anyone assisting in a suicide can be sentenced to up to four years in prison and fined more than $2,000 (Reuters 1993). In a poll cited in a 1991 issu...

Hitler book Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Hitler book - Term Paper Example According to Hitler, the Russian movement had direct links to anarchy. Hitler refers to the Russian movement as one that does not warrant references as a high society. The Aryans are industrious while Russians do not embrace handwork. The Russians cannot return to nature since they view it as a return to primitive form of life. Addressing the concern on coal and petroleum, Hitler maintains that petroleum is available in many parts while people tend to deplete the reserves on coal. He highlights that petroleum is renewable but exploitation of coal is a destruction of the soil. According to Hitler, man is the most dangerous being. Man is the cause of every single problem in the world. The imagination of Hitler about the new Europe is that of a frontier society. He views St. Petersburg as one of the beautiful cities. Hitler talks of the natural devoutness of man citing that the piety man is one who thinks extensively about the world. Hitler refers to the progress of technology as reason that betrayed liberalism. On the nature of God, Hitler maintains that religion is a source of refuge for humankind. He notes that there is no God in Russia and still the people face death. He also maintains that National Socialism is incompatible when it occurs together with belief in religion. The coming of Christianity was the greatest blow to humanity. There should be no Islam without Christianity. Hitler maintained beliefs that the end of the war would be a beginning of good relations between Germany and England. He believed in the competence of the German army. On the relationship with Rumania, Hitler maintained that it would supply Germany with food while Germany supplies it with weapons and technology. He condemned monarchy and opted for the existence of a republic. On unemployment, Hitler says that Germany is the only country with full employment (Cameron and Stevens 42). Hitler expressed worries only a small portion, nearly a quarter, of the surface of the earth is availab le for humanity while the wealth in the world is inexhaustible (Cameron and Stevens 53). Hitler worries on how to solve the challenge of unemployment. Hitler maintains that optimism is among the greatest characters that humanity should nature. A pessimist’s mind can cause a soldier to lose a battle. Hitler maintains that Britain must drive for peace of the world. He condemns Winston Churchill for betraying the curiosity of his empire. According to Hitler, Churchill took advantage of the Great Britain’s interest by allegedly channeling for diversion. Churchill misused the patriotism that the English people granted upon him. He also misused the trust that the people placed upon him. Hitler declares that he does not subscribe to idealism. In his view, subjects should not bear responsibility for the mistakes of their rulers. In Hitler’s opinion, Churchill failed to convince the people that they could win the war. This was being pessimistic about the state of the war . The English should blame Churchill for their failure to win the war. Hitler expressed his opinion on the government in Europe and that in the U.S. The U.S had its origin as a republic and that forms its foundation. European countries, however, had their origin from monarchial powers. The apparent republic, therefore, took from monarchial regimes. Germany, according to Hitler, was the only European country that resembled the U.S because of its good governance as a republic. Hitler praises himself for saving Germany from adopting a

Conceptual Art Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Conceptual Art - Essay Example Conceptual art is perhaps one of the artistic movements surrounded by many debates and controversies since it seems to provoke powerful emotions and reactions in audiences. That is, although a good number of audiences agree that conceptual art is not only refreshing but also relevant to modern times, others find it rather repugnant and shocking kind of art. In fact, others feel that conceptual art is not art at all. Thus, conceptual art could be described as something loved and hated in equal measure. That conceptual art is controversial and divisive is not accidental as it seeks to challenge and probe audiences to take a keen and analytical look at art in general and prompts them to question hitherto unchallenged assumptions about what qualifies as art and the roles of art and artists. Therefore, there are a number of hurdles that philosophers of conceptual art have to encounter and contend with in their work. First, conceptual art philosopher need to isolate the art/object under ex amination or categorization. This activity becomes quite challenging given that the definition and boundary of conceptual and other types of art is not quite clear. Generally, conceptual art refers to the artistic movement that appeared in the period between 1966 and 1972, practiced and spread by artists such as Joseph Kosuth, Robert Morris, Joseph Beuys and Mel Ramsden. A critical feature of this period’s art is its absorption and application of the lessons learnt from earlier 20th century art movements such as the Fluxus group., Abstract Expressionism, Dadaism, Surrealism, and Suprematism. The other unique feature of conceptual art is that it attempts to overcome the notion that art is only about aesthetic value, emphasizing that art only valued for its beauty but not to make people think is redundant (Corris 78). Unlike conceptual art, instead of promoting reflection and conception, earlier artistic movements only used art to promote consumerism on the basis of the beauty of art and the skills of the artists. Conceptual artists thus denounce these specific and restricted views of art, Instead, they promote a revisionary understanding of works of art, artists, and artistic experiences. From a philosophical viewpoint, it would be rather narrow to restrict the definition of conceptual art to the 1960s and the 1970s. Thus, any inquiry into conceptual art should not only cover artworks created in this mentioned period since the spirit and intentions with which conceptual art was produced in the 1960s and 1970s continues even in current times

Evaluation of the Company's Strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Evaluation of the Company's Strategy - Essay Example The main objective of author of the study is not only to show the current strategic position of the company through strategic management analysis, but also would help in conducting environmental scanning, strategy formulation and implementation. This would help in understanding the changing market dynamics. The design of effective strategies for each line of business of the company would help in gaining competitive advantage over its competitors. The strategic evaluation of TESCO would also be done to help the managers assess the present organizational structure for error detection. Introduction: History TESCO is one of the leading supermarket retailer in United Kingdom (UK), and the fourth largest retailer in the world after Walmart, Carrefour and Home Depot. It is also one of the largest online grocery retailers in UK (Humby, Phillips and Hunt, 2008). Initially, Tesco specialized in food retailing but later it diversified into non food segments like clothing, electronic appliances, banking, insurance and telecommunications (TESCO Plc, 2013a). Present Situation of TESCO The company has a worldwide presence in China, India, Hungary, Slovakia, Czech Republic, Poland and many other countries. TESCO employs 300,000 people and operates 3,000 stores worldwide. TESCO employs 300,000 people and operates 3,000 stores worldwide. The company operates 200 stores in UK itself and offers a varied range of food items. It is the leading brand of food retailing in UK followed by Everyday Value. Tesco has always believed that the strategy of the company needs to be revised as per the changing taste and preference of consumers. Tesco believes in improving the customer service by responding to the customer needs and wants. The stores are usually renovated from time to time, in order to give customers a warmer and refreshing feel in the stores. TESCO products are usually low priced and of better quality (TESCO Plc, 2013b). The company believes in undertaking environmental and soci al responsibilities. It publishes its corporate social responsibility charter every year (Dinkhoff, 2009). Analysis &Critical Evaluation of TESCO Strategic Positioning It is necessary to undertake a strategic analysis at an industry level and also analyze various strategies for targeted segments. A useful and purposeful framework, which will help in identifying the resources and capabilities that are required to operate within a particular market (Aker and McLoughlin, 2010). This framework helps in formulation of strategies that help the company in gaining competitive advantage over its competitors. Porter’s Five Forces Model The five forces framework model developed by Michael Porter is instrumental in determining the competitive intensity and attractiveness of an industry by the interaction of five competitive forces. Threat of new entrants: The UK retail industry is suffering from economic slowdown which is indirectly affected by the low consumer spending and decrease in t he demand of varied food and non food items. There has been limited entry of retail departmental stores in the UK retail